Some people believe Li or rituals are about organizing and structuring social and personal behaviors, and thus seem to conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. Then, can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)? Bear this question in your mind and answer the following questions:
–a) What indeed is freedom? Use Kant’s interpretation of freedom as a way to comprehend your understanding of Confucius’s requisites on propriety. In what way are Confucius’s idea of propriety comparable with Kant’s idea of imperative duty?
–b) How does the German philosopher Kant define human’s “rational capacity”? From this perspective, how should we look at Confucian's influence on Chinese humanity? How is western rationality similar and different from Confucian rationality?
a.For Kant, freedom is not about mere personal liberty or the ability to act without constraint, but rather about acting according to rational principles, and specifically, acting in accordance with the moral law.Confucius’s concept of li refers to the rites, rituals, norms, and social behaviors that govern interactions in society, family, and state.
Where they differ is in the foundation of that duty: Kant’s duty is grounded in autonomy and rational will, whereas Confucius’s li is embedded in social harmony and historical tradition. Kant sees freedom as the ability to legislate moral laws autonomously, whereas Confucius sees it as the cultivation of virtue and moral action through alignment with socially and culturally established norms.
b.Kant defines the rational capacity of humans primarily in terms of their ability to reason according to universal laws.Confucian rationality, on the other hand, is not as concerned with universal laws of morality in the abstract sense that Kant envisions, but with contextual reasoning that is rooted in relational dynamics and moral roles.In Confucianism, rationality is not about abstract universal rules, but about moral judgment based on one's social context, duties, and the cultivation of virtues such as benevolence, righteousness , and propriety. It is an interpersonal rationality, where the focus is on how one’s actions can contribute to the well-being and harmony of society.Kant’s rational capacity emphasizes universal moral autonomy and abstract principles of justice, while Confucian rationality emphasizes moral relationality and the cultivation of virtue through socially embedded practices like li. Both traditions recognize the importance of moral duty and ethical action, but Kantian rationality prioritizes individual autonomy and universal laws, while Confucian rationality is more contextually focused on the role of the individual within society and family.
a. Kant believes that freedom is an autonomous moral choice guided by pure reason. When applying this concept to the rites of Confucius, we find that although Confucius emphasizes the standardization of rites, he also attaches great importance to the moral consciousness and autonomy of human beings. Confucius' ritual view and Kant's imperative obligation view are comparable in moral autonomy, normativity and universality, but they differ in theory construction, argumentation and emphasis. Kant is more abstract and formalized, emphasizing rationality; Confucius was more concrete and practical, focusing on emotion and intuition.
b. Kant defined man's "rational ability" as the cognitive ability to pursue knowledge completeness and unconditionality, but it will face contradictions. The influence of Confucianism on the human nature of Chinese people is mainly reflected in the moral ethics, social structure and character formation, emphasizing moral cultivation, social responsibility and family harmony. Both Western reason and Confucian reason attach importance to the role of reason in cognition and moral judgment, but there are differences in theoretical basis, goal pursuit and mode of thinking. Western rationality pays attention to logic and reasoning, and pursues objective knowledge and scientific truth. Confucian rationality is based on moral ethics, pursuing moral perfection and social harmony, and paying attention to intuition and understanding.
Li, in many traditional philosophical and cultural contexts, often refers to propriety, ethics, or a set of norms that govern human behavior within a society.
Kant's interpretation of "freedom" is centered around the idea that freedom is the ability to act autonomously according to moral laws that one gives to oneself. For Kant, freedom is not just the absence of external constraints but also the capacity to act in accordance with reason and moral duty.
A comparative view between Li and Kant's freedom might show some differences. While Li emphasizes social harmony and adherence to established norms, Kant's freedom is more focused on individual autonomy and moral self-legislation. However, there could also be some similarities in that both concepts aim to guide human behavior in a way that is considered proper and just.
In Kant's view, freedom is the law of self, which is designed independently according to self-consciousness. The freedom emphasized by Confucius is not the suppression of personality, but a normative requirement based on social order, with the purpose of ensuring that everyone can fulfill their responsibilities and maintain social stability. Such appropriate requirements of Confucius are regarded as the law of moral self-discipline, whereby people can make choices according to their own moral values to realize social values. Confucius's thought of justice emphasizes responsibility and duty in social roles and relationships, while Kant's thought of duty is based on reason and moral law, which holds that people are obliged to follow universal moral principles. According to Kant, human rational ability is the ability to transcend perceptual experience and understand the nature of things and universal laws through concepts, judgments and reasoning. From the perspective of Kant's definition of rational ability, Confucianism has cultivated the moral rationality and practical rationality of Chinese people to a certain extent. Confucianism emphasizes personal moral cultivation, interpersonal harmony and social responsibility, which helps people to use rational thinking to regulate their behavior and make choices in line with moral and social norms. The similarities all emphasize the pursuit of knowledge and wisdom, while the differences are that the West emphasizes the pursuit of logical reasoning, analysis and speculation, while Confucianism emphasizes the realization of moral values, moral teachings and etiquette norms through the realization of social responsibility.
Freedom, according to Immanuel Kant, is the ability to act according to one’s own rational will, guided by moral law rather than mere impulses or desires. Kant emphasizes that true freedom is not the absence of constraints but the ability to act in accordance with rational principles that one has chosen for oneself. This aligns with his concept of the "categorical imperative," which is a universal moral law that one must follow out of duty.
In the context of Confucius’s concept of Li (ritual propriety), we can see a parallel. Confucius believed that Li serves to cultivate moral character and social harmony. While it may seem that these rituals impose restrictions on individual expression, they can also be viewed as frameworks that guide individuals toward ethical behavior and social responsibility. Thus, both Confucius’s idea of propriety and Kant’s imperative duty emphasize the importance of moral obligations that transcend personal desires, suggesting that true freedom involves adhering to these higher principles.
Kant defines human rational capacity as the ability to think, reason, and make decisions based on principles rather than mere sensory experience or instinct. This capacity allows individuals to discern right from wrong and to act according to moral laws that they recognize as binding.
From this perspective, Confucianism can be seen as a framework that nurtures this rational capacity within a social context. Confucius emphasized the importance of education, self-cultivation, and moral development, which align with Kant’s view of rationality as a means to achieve ethical living. Confucianism encourages individuals to reflect on their roles within society and to act in ways that promote harmony and respect for others, which can be seen as an expression of rational moral capacity.
Similarities:
1. Moral Framework: Both Western rationality (especially in the Kantian sense) and Confucian rationality emphasize the importance of moral principles and duties. They both advocate for a rational approach to ethics that transcends individual desires.
2. Focus on Community: Both philosophies recognize the significance of community and social relationships in ethical behavior. They stress that individual actions have broader implications for society.
Differences:
1. Individual vs. Collective: Western rationality often emphasizes individual autonomy and rights, while Confucian rationality places a stronger emphasis on collective harmony and social roles. Confucianism prioritizes the well-being of the community over individual desires.
2. Nature of Duty: Kant’s categorical imperative is universal and abstract, while Confucian duties are often context-specific, rooted in familial and social relationships. Confucius’s approach is more relational, focusing on the nuances of human interactions.
In conclusion, while there are tensions between the structured nature of Confucian rituals and the notion of free spirit, both Confucius and Kant offer valuable insights into the nature of freedom and moral duty. They encourage us to consider how our actions can reflect our rational capacities and contribute to the greater good of society.
Kant believed that freedom is a prerequisite and foundation for moral practice. He stressed that when a person pursues freedom, it is necessary for everyone to be free, otherwise it is only possible to be a monarch. This requires adherence to certain rules. Therefore, in Kant's view, freedom is not unrestrained and arbitrary, but autonomous and self-disciplined in achieving freedom under the premise of universal moral laws.
Confucius' requirements for "rites":
Confucius emphasized the importance of "li" (rituals), believing that it is the foundation for social harmony and individual cultivation. He advocated for the education of morality and etiquette through music and rituals to enhance people's moral qualities. He hoped to reestablish a well-ordered system through the Zhou rituals. In Confucius' view, "li" includes both external behavioral norms and inner moral cultivation.
Similarities:
*Both Confucius and Kant emphasized the importance of rules or moral laws. Confucius spoke of "rectifying oneself by following the rituals," while Kant spoke of the "absolute moral law," both of which emphasized the role of rules in ensuring human freedom and moral self-discipline. They both believed that only by following these rules could people achieve true freedom.
*Both also emphasized the importance of individual moral cultivation and self-improvement. Whether it is Confucius' "benevolence" and "rituals" or Kant's "absolute imperative," they both require individuals to constantly improve their moral standing and achieve self-transcendence.
b) How did the German philosopher Immanuel Kant define human "rational capacity"? What is the impact of Confucian thought on Chinese people from this perspective? What are the similarities and differences between Western rationalism and Confucian rationalism?
Kant's definition of the "capacity of reason":
Kant believed that humans have a cognitive ability called reason, which enables them to form knowledge from sensory experiences through the synthesis of intellectual categories and further to make knowledge into a system. The a priori forms of reason are ideas, and its function is reasoning. Kant pushed the syllogistic reasoning, hypothetical reasoning, and categorical reasoning to the extreme, which are the three ideas of reason: soul, world, and God. This cognitive ability is one of the important markers that distinguish humans from animals.
The influence of Confucianism on Chinese people:
Confucianism has profoundly influenced the daily lives and values of Chinese people. It emphasizes moral principles and norms such as "benevolence" and "rites," constantly shaping the values and behaviors of Chinese society. In the realm of education, Confucianism values the role of education in cultivating moral character and promoting social progress. In politics, Confucianism advocates "rule by virtue," emphasizing the moral example set by rulers and benevolent governance. In the realm of economics, Confucianism also advocates honest business practices and fairness and justice.
Differences and Similarities Between Western Rationalism and Confucian Rationalism:
Similarities:
Both emphasize the importance of reason and morality. Whether Western rationalism or Confucian rationalism, they consider reason and morality to be an important part of human spiritual life. They are both committed to exploring how to guide human behavior and social order through reason and morality.
Both focus on the moral cultivation and self-improvement of individuals. Whether Kant's "absolute command" or Confucian concepts such as "benevolence" and "rites," they require individuals to constantly improve their moral level and achieve self-transcendence.
Differences:
There are differences in their attitudes towards nature. Western rationalism gradually formed the idea of treating nature as something that can be conquered and utilized after the scientific revolution; while Confucian thought emphasizes the harmonious relationship between man and nature, and believes that man should respect nature and pursue inner and outer harmony.
There are also differences in social structure. Confucian thought emphasizes hierarchy and order, as well as the hierarchical relationship between family and society; while modern Western thought places more emphasis on equality and individual rights, as well as democracy and the rule of law principles.
In conclusion, we cannot simply regard Confucius as being against human nature. On the contrary, his ideas and concepts had their own rationality and value under specific historical conditions. At the same time, when understanding and evaluating different cultural traditions and thought systems, we should adopt an open and inclusive attitude to engage in in-depth discussions and exchanges.
According to Kant, freedom is to behave according to nature. To some extent it is close to the conception of Confucius’s idea of propriety which requests people behave in an appropriate way.According to Kant, human’s “rational capacity” lies in human's ability to control themselves and make choices. The concept of Confucian tells Chinese people that how to make choices wisely. All in all, I believe Confucius is not in line with inhumanity.
It is completely wrong to say that Confucius is inhumane.
a.They both aim at the betterment of the individual and society. By following propriety, individuals in Confucian society can become more virtuous, and society becomes more harmonious. Similarly, Kant's moral philosophy aims at creating a society where people act according to rational moral laws, which is beneficial for the overall well - being of society.
b.They both aim at the pursuit of the good. Whether it is the Western concept of the highest good or the Confucian pursuit of the harmonious society based on moral values, reason is used to strive for a positive and ideal state.
a) In Kant's view, true freedom is not external and unlimited, but internal and rational self-discipline. Confucius believes that through long-term observance of etiquette, etiquette will gradually internalize into the essence of individuals and become a natural behavior habit. Both of them emphasize the immanence and initiative in moral behavior and the guiding role of moral norms in moral behavior, which provides important enlightenment for us to understand the essence of moral behavior.
b) Kant defines rationality as the completeness and unconditionally of knowledge that cannot be achieved in experience, that is, the cognitive ability of knowing the world, soul and God. Confucian culture emphasizes people's moral cultivation and social responsibility, and believes that people's morality and realm can be improved through education and cultivation. Both emphasize the role of reason in morality and cognition. Western rationalism emphasizes the independence and autonomy of individuals, while Confucian rationality pays more attention to the position and role of individuals in society and emphasizes the harmony and unity between individuals and society.
Both concepts have an underlying concern for moral agency. Kant's freedom requires individuals to use their reason to make moral choices, and "Li" also expects individuals to exercise their judgment and self-restraint to adhere to the norms. In a sense, "Li" can be regarded as a form of freedom within a social context, where individuals freely choose to follow the path of propriety and virtue to achieve a greater good for the community as a whole, rather than a mere restraint on personal liberty. It is a different manifestation of the relationship between the individual and moral principles compared to Kant's more individualistic and rationally-based concept of freedom.
a) Freedom, according to Immanuel Kant, is the capacity to act according to a universal law that one gives to oneself. This is central to his concept of the categorical imperative, which is a way of evaluating motivations for action. For Kant, true freedom is not the absence of constraints but the ability to act in accordance with moral law, which is determined through rationality.
Confucius's requisites on propriety (li) can be understood through this lens by seeing propriety as a set of guidelines for behavior that, when internalized, allow individuals to act in a way that is harmonious with societal expectations and moral principles. Confucius believed that by practicing propriety, one could cultivate moral virtue and achieve a state of harmony with others. In this sense, Confucius's idea of propriety is comparable to Kant's idea of imperative duty in that both involve a set of rules or principles that guide behavior.
b) Kant defines human "rational capacity" as the ability to use reason to understand moral laws and to act autonomously based on these understandings. Rational capacity is what separates humans from other animals and what gives them the ability to determine their own moral destiny.
Looking at Confucianism's influence on Chinese humanity through this perspective:
- Confucianism emphasizes the importance of moral cultivation and the development of virtues that are in line with rational principles. It encourages individuals to use reason to discern the proper way to behave in different situations, which aligns with Kant's view of rational capacity.
- The influence of Confucianism on Chinese culture has often been to promote a society where individuals are encouraged to act in ways that are beneficial to the collective, which can be seen as a rational approach to societal organization.
Regarding the suggestion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity as proposed by Bertrand Russell, it is important to note that Confucianism is deeply concerned with human flourishing and moral development. While it does advocate for a structured approach to behavior and societal organization, this is not necessarily at odds with human emotional instinct and free spirit. In fact, Confucianism can be seen as a means to harmonize these instincts with the needs of society, thereby promoting a form of freedom that is consistent with moral duty and social harmony. To label Confucius as inhumane would be to misunderstand the nuanced and humanistic goals of his philosophy.
Confucius and Kant's concept of freedom is similar: Kant believes that freedom is realized through self-legislation, and this freedom is internal and comes from the rational judgment of individuals. Confucius also emphasized self-discipline, believing that through the study of Li, individuals can achieve a sense of inner peace and freedom. This self-discipline is also an internal self-restraint, rather than an externally imposed rule.
At the same time, Confucius's concept of freedom does not rigidly suppress human nature, but guides and promotes human nature through appropriate etiquette and moral norms. Confucius' concept of freedom emphasizes the exercise of freedom in accordance with human nature. This freedom is not unfettered indulgence, but within reasonable limits, through self-discipline and moral norms to achieve personal and social harmony.
Kant claims that freedom is not to meet humen‘s natural desire like eating and sleeping.
Freedom means people obey the law that we set for ourselves. By the true freedom, we should say no to unrighteous things. This freedom is not based on unlimited indulgence, but on our inner self-discipline and moral code. So to some extent, Kant’s freedom has similarities with Confucius’. Confucius believes there is no extreme freedom. Everyone in the universe should act according to Li, thus making society and personal relationships harmonious.
For Immanuel Kant, freedom is not merely the absence of external constraints but the capacity to act according to one's own rational will, which is autonomous and self-governed. This form of freedom is closely tied to his moral philosophy, particularly the concept of the categorical imperative, which is a principle that one must follow regardless of desire or inclination. The categorical imperative is an absolute, unconditional requirement that must be obeyed in all circumstances and is justified as an end in itself.
Kant outlines several formulations of the categorical imperative, but two are most relevant here:
1. Universal Law Formulation: Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law.
2. Humanity as an End in Itself: Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never merely as a means to an end, but always at the same time as an end.
Confucian Propriety (Li)
Confucius emphasizes the importance of Li, which refers to rituals, proper conduct, and social norms that govern behavior in society. Li is not just about external actions but also about the internal attitude and intentions behind those actions. For Confucius, propriety is a means to cultivate virtue and maintain social harmony. It involves respecting hierarchical relationships and fulfilling one's roles and responsibilities within the family and society.
Comparison Between Confucian Propriety and Kantian Duty
1. Autonomy and Heteronomy:
Kant: Emphasizes autonomy, where individuals are free because they act according to laws they give themselves through reason.
Confucius: While Confucian propriety might seem more externally imposed, it ultimately aims to align one's actions with a deeper sense of moral and social order. The goal is to internalize these norms so that they become a natural part of one's character, leading to genuine virtue.
2. Moral Law and Social Harmony:
Kant: The categorical imperative is a universal moral law that applies to all rational beings, regardless of context.
Confucius: Li is deeply contextual, tailored to specific social roles and relationships. However, like the categorical imperative, it aims to create a harmonious and just society by guiding individuals to act in ways that benefit the whole.
This view is wrong. Confucius's thought is far from unhuman.
Kant's view of freedom: For Kant, freedom is the ability to act in accordance with self - given moral laws, independent of external coercion and the determination of natural instincts. It emphasizes the autonomy of the will.
Confucius's propriety and freedom: Confucius's propriety is not a restraint that suppresses human nature. Propriety is a set of norms that help people to interact in society in an orderly and harmonious way. It is more like a self - discipline based on moral concepts. It is similar to Kant's concept of "imperative duty" in that both emphasize the importance of moral principles guiding behavior. Confucius's propriety requires people to have self - restraint in social interactions, such as in dealing with parents (filial piety), superiors and subordinates (loyalty), and friends (sincerity). This is a kind of moral self - obligation, just as Kant's "imperative duty" requires people to act according to the principles that can be universalized.
Propriety in Confucianism covers a wide range of daily life and social interactions in a very detailed way, including specific behaviors in different ceremonies and family life. Kant's imperative duty is more focused on fundamental moral principles that govern broader moral decision-making rather than specific social etiquette.
Both Confucius' "Li" and Kant's conception of freedom see the observance of these guiding principles as a means for personal growth and the cultivation of a morally and socially worthy self.
Kant sees freedom as acting per self-given moral law. Confucius's propriety isn't a restraint but a framework for ethical expression, like Kant's categorical imperative guiding moral behavior.
Kant defines rational capacity as using pure reason for moral principles. Confucianism influences Chinese humanity via moral cultivation in social life. Western rationality is more abstractly deduced; Confucian rationality is embedded in social relations. Confucius isn't inhumane; his ideas have value compared to Western ones like Kant's.
The two views have something in common to some extent. Kant believes that freedom is not an unlimited pursuit of pleasure, but a spontaneous law of one's own actions. In this sense, freedom as autonomy is an especially stringent idea that Kant insists on. Li of Confucius are also a limitation, and this limitation is not absolute. The relevance of both views is reflected in their regulation of individual behavior.
On the other hand, Kant's freedom differs from Confucius' etiquette in that the former emphasizes individual spontaneous rules while the latter focuses on social order.
Kant's definition of freedom occupies a core position in his philosophical system. Kant divides freedom into two concepts: negative freedom and positive freedom. Negative freedom means "not forced", that is, not forced and restricted by external factors; Positive freedom, on the other hand, requires a special ability to open causal chains, which Kant interprets as practical reason or autonomy.Kant believes that freedom is closely related to moral law and that free will is the basis of moral action. In Chinese philosophy, "Li" is also related to moral practice, as Cheng Yi said, "Li" is the moral standard of human behavior.
a.Kant views freedom as behavior guided by rationality and grounded in duty, while Confucius sees ritual (li) as the path to achieving individual and social harmony within freedom. The comparability of their views on moral behavior lies in:
Normative Role: Both emphasize the constraining influence of morality on society and individuals.
Intrinsic Motivation: Both believe that true moral behavior originates from within one's heart.
Universal Necessity: Both advocate that moral behavior is universally applicable and inevitable.
In summary, there are many similarities between their moral outlooks.
b. Kant views rationality as the foundation of morality. Confucianism sees human nature as inherently good, cultivable through education, echoing Kant's rational shaping of nature. Both Western and Confucian rationality value cognition and ethics, but focus differently: Western on nature and science, Confucian on human nature and society. Cultural backgrounds and practices also diverge.
a)Freedom is the freedom to act freely according to one's own will. Confucius advocated ritual, but this ritual is to maintain order rather than restrain people's desires and thoughts. I think that under the premise of ritual maintaining order, people still have freedom and can still act freely.
b)
Confucius emphasized the importance of wisdom and the cultivation of personal virtue, which involves a form of practical rationality.
Similarities: Both traditions recognize the role of rationality in guiding human behavior and in the pursuit of knowledge and ethical living.
Differences: The Western tradition, especially in its German philosophical lineage, often emphasizes abstract reasoning and the formulation of universal principles. In contrast, Chinese philosophy tends to focus more on practical wisdom and the application of reason within social and natural contect.
a）Confucius believed that "ritual" is an attitude that a gentleman adopts towards all things after distinguishing right from wrong through "benevolence" . It is a mindset and approach to handling affairs that is not influenced by external factors or confused by inner thoughts. This attitude, like what Kant referred to as "freedom," is a form of inner self-discipline and autonomy. Both are norms that guide us on how we should behave. Confucius's view on "ritual" tells us to abide by "ritual" and to "restrain oneself and conform to ritual" . Similarly, Kant's concept of "categorical imperative" also tells us to follow moral laws and to act in accordance with morality.
b）Rationality is the capacity for principles, involving the processing and transformation of intellectual knowledge, attempting to deduce from conditional things to unconditional and comprehensive wholes. Both Western rationality and Confucian rationality are dedicated to the pursuit of truth and wisdom. Both emphasize the importance of rational thinking and exploration in order to comprehend and understand the world.Modern Western thought places greater emphasis on equality and individual rights, advocating democracy and the rule of law, and asserting that everyone should have equal opportunities and rights.Confucian rationality, on the other hand, emphasizes hierarchy and order, valuing the hierarchical relationships within families and society, such as those between father and son, ruler and subject, husband and wife, and believing that social stability depends on the harmony of these relationships.
1.Kant thinks freedom is to act freely,is to act autonomously and to act autonomously is to act according to a law I give myself.
Confucius stresses that "do what you want from your heart, and do not go beyond the rules", that is, when you reach a certain level of self-cultivation, you can do what you want, and you will not go beyond the rules.
Both Kant's and Confucius' interpretations of freedom emphasize the individual's freedom of choice under the premise of abiding by certain rules and regulations.
2.Kant believes that reason is the basis of human understanding of the world, and through reason, human beings can transform the chaotic information received by the senses into orderly knowledge.
In the pursuit of absolute truth and unity, reason often oversteps its own limits and steps into the realm of irrationality
Confucius' "Li" is deeply rooted in ancient Chinese social and cultural traditions. It mainly refers to a comprehensive set of ritual systems, including ceremonies such as sacrifices, funerals, and social etiquettes between different hierarchical relationships like monarch - subject, father - son, husband - wife. It emphasizes the importance of following traditional norms to maintain social order and harmony.
Kant's moral philosophy focuses more on the categorical imperative. His ideas are more about the universal moral law that is based on reason. While he also values proper behavior and respect among people, it's not the same as Confucius' "Li". Kant's moral principles aim to determine the rightness or wrongness of an action through rational thinking and the idea that moral laws should be applicable to all rational beings.
According to Kant, freedom is the ability to act in accordance with self - given moral laws. It emphasizes the autonomy of the will. In the context of Confucian thought, propriety is not a constraint that suppresses human nature. Propriety is a kind of moral and behavioral norm established to enable people to interact in an orderly and harmonious manner.
Confucius advocated propriety to regulate people's behavior. This is not to suppress freedom. On the contrary, it is to guide people to express their emotions and desires in a more civilized and appropriate way.
Kant's categorical imperative requires people to act according to principles that can be universalized. Confucius's propriety also has a similar connotation. Propriety is a set of norms that apply to everyone in society.
Kant's view of freedom and Confucius's concept of"Li"(ritual)share comparability in emphasizing individual self-discipline,moral behavior,social order,and the relationship between the individual and society.Both attempt to guide individuals towards moral self-discipline and social harmony in different ways.However,Kant's view of freedom focuses more on individual rational autonomy,while Confucius's"Li"emphasizes the internalization of social and cultural traditions and external norms.Although these two philosophical systems have different starting points and focuses,they both reflect a profound concern for individual moral freedom and social order.
Kant's definition of rationality mainly involves theoretical reason,practical reason,and the threefold innate predispositions to good in rationality.
The influence of Confucianism on Chinese human nature is mainly reflected in moral self-discipline,moral cultivation,and practical reason.
Kant and Confucianism have both similarities and significant differences in their understanding of rational capacity.Kant's concept of rationality emphasizes the connection between rationality and free will,as well as the dual role of rationality in cognition and moral practice,while Confucianism focuses more on the manifestation of rationality in moral cultivation and practice,as well as the unity of rationality and sensibility.
Confucius' etiquette is not only an external code of conduct, but also an internal moral reason. Confucius believed that "etiquette" is the basis of social order and harmonious interpersonal relations, and this order and harmony is achieved through the inner "benevolence". This echoes Kant's view that moral action should be based on universal laws of reason. By emphasizing the unity of internal morality and external behavior, Confucius' thought of "rites" has influenced Chinese people to integrate moral reason into daily life and social interaction.
a)Freedom is a complex concept in political philosophy that involves the ability of human beings to govern themselves and act with free will, as well as the acceptance of responsibility for their actions. Kant's understanding of freedom is particularly profound, he believes that freedom is not to do what one wants, but to dominate oneself, a process of self-legislation and self-compliance. In Kant's philosophical system, freedom is closely connected with moral law, and when people act in accordance with moral law, they are practicing freedom.
b)Kant believes that reason is the cognitive ability of human beings, which includes knowledge elements such as a priori form, a priori category and a priori idea. These elements and rational cognition ability are two related but different concepts. Kant distinguishes between reason (rational activity) and will, arguing that they are two different things in which reason can determine will.
**a) Freedom according to Kant and its relation to Confucius's propriety**
Kant interprets freedom as the ability to act in accordance with moral law out of one's own will, not being determined by external factors or inclinations.
Confucius's requisites on propriety (Li) are not in conflict with freedom in a deeper sense. Propriety in Confucianism is a set of norms that help to regulate social relationships and individual behaviors in an orderly manner. It is not about suppressing human nature but guiding it towards harmonious co - existence.
The idea of Kant's imperative duty is that moral actions should be based on universalizable maxims. Similarly, Confucius's propriety is also about following certain ethical norms that are considered beneficial for the whole society. For example, the proper way of interacting with elders, which is a part of Li, is like a moral duty in Confucian thought. It is not simply a mechanical rule but is aimed at promoting respect and harmony within the social fabric, much like Kant's idea of acting according to moral law for the sake of a harmonious moral community.
**b) Kant's definition of "rational capacity" and Confucian influence on Chinese humanity**
Kant defines human's rational capacity as the ability to think independently, to use reason to determine moral laws and actions.
Confucianism has had a profound influence on Chinese humanity. It has cultivated values such as respect for family, loyalty, and social harmony. Confucian rationality emphasizes the importance of moral cultivation through education and self - reflection. It focuses on the relationship between individuals and society, and how individuals should behave to contribute to the well - being of society.
The similarity between Western rationality (as in Kant) and Confucian rationality is that both emphasize the importance of using reason to guide behavior. However, the difference lies in their focus. Western rationality often starts from the individual's self - determination of moral laws, while Confucian rationality is more centered around social relationships and the hierarchical order within society. For example, in Kantian ethics, an action is moral if it can be willed as a universal law by an individual's autonomous reason. In Confucianism, an action is considered proper if it conforms to the norms that promote social harmony and family values.
Regarding the initial statement about Confucius being inhumane, this is a misinterpretation. Confucius's teachings on propriety are an important part of his overall philosophy that aims at creating a harmonious and ethical society, which is in line with the well - being of humanity.
For Kant, freedom is fundamentally a moral concept. It is the ability to act in accordance with the moral law, which he refers to as the Categorical Imperative. This imperative is not based on external constraints or desires but rather on the rational nature of human beings. Freedom, in this sense, is the autonomy to act out of a sense of duty and respect for the moral law, rather than being driven by inclination, passion, or external coercion.Confucius emphasizes propriety (Li) as a fundamental aspect of social harmony and moral behavior. Propriety, for Confucius, is not just a set of external rules or rituals but rather a way of embodying virtue and fostering harmonious relationships. It involves acting with respect, humility, and consideration for others, and it is intertwined with the concept of Ren.
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