Some people believe Li or rituals are about organizing and structuring social and personal behaviors, and thus seem to conflict with human emotional instinct and free spirit. Then, can we draw the conclusion that Confucius is in line with inhumanity (as suggested by Bertrand Russel on page 54)? Bear this question in your mind and answer the following questions:
–a) What indeed is freedom? Use Kant’s interpretation of freedom as a way to comprehend your understanding of Confucius’s requisites on propriety. In what way are Confucius’s idea of propriety comparable with Kant’s idea of imperative duty?
–b) How does the German philosopher Kant define human’s “rational capacity”? From this perspective, how should we look at Confucian's influence on Chinese humanity? How is western rationality similar and different from Confucian rationality?
Fei Xiaotong's concept of "the pattern of difference sequence" doesn't mean that Confucianism advocates weaker love for others.
In the view of Confucianism, love spreads outwards step by step along blood relations like concentric circles. Love for family members is the foundation and starting point, which is a natural manifestation of closeness. However, Confucianism also advocates "putting oneself in others' shoes", just like "respecting the elders of other families as one's own, and loving the children of other families as one's own". This kind of love doesn't mean only caring about one's own family while having less and less love for others. Instead, it extends outward like ripples on the water, circle by circle.
With "benevolence" as the core, when a person reaches a certain level of self-cultivation, he will extend the care and sense of responsibility for his family to friends, society and even everything in the world. From loving relatives to loving the common people and then to loving all things in the world, it reflects an ideal of universal love. In fact, "the pattern of difference sequence" describes the situation where there are differences in the closeness of interpersonal relationships, and the love in Confucianism has the positive meaning of constantly expanding and extending from the near to the far and from relatives to strangers.
a For Kant, freedom is the ability to act in accordance with moral laws that one gives to oneself out of reason. Confucius's concept of propriety (Li) is not a constraint that suppresses human nature but a set of norms that help people to express themselves and interact with others in an orderly and harmonious way. Propriety in Confucianism is similar to Kant's categorical imperative in that they both provide a moral - ethical framework.
b Kant defines human "rational capacity" as the ability to think and act according to principles and laws that are self - recognized through pure reason. From this perspective, Confucianism has had a far - reaching impact on Chinese humanity. Confucian rationality emphasizes personal moral cultivation and social harmony. It is different from Western rationality in that Western rationality often emphasizes more on objective analysis, logical deduction, and individual rights.
Confucianism is a human - centered ideological system that respects human nature and aims to promote the all - around development of individuals and the well - being of society through moral and ethical concepts.
First of all, freedom must be freedom in chains, under rules. Under this premise, Confucius' etiquette view takes into account the overall situation more than Kant's obligation view. Ssecond, Kant defines freedom as "human can act according to the law they give themselves". In that case, Confucianism has a long and profound influence on shaping the inner character of Chinese people. Western civilization and Confucianism both emphasize freedom, but their definitions of freedom are completely different - this constitutes a gap between cultures.
a) Kant views freedom as acting according to self-imposed laws, guided by reason, not merely by inclination. Confucius emphasizes Li, a set of moral guidelines for harmonious social conduct, akin to Kant’s categorical imperative, which demands actions that can be universalized. Both philosophers advocate for a rational, principled life, where actions are not dictated by desires but by a higher moral order. Confucian Li and Kantian duty both seek to cultivate virtuous individuals who contribute positively to society through reasoned, ethical behavior.
b) Kant defines human "rational capacity" as the ability to act according to autonomous reason rather than external influences or personal desires. From this perspective, Confucianism's influence on Chinese humanity lies in cultivating individual morality and social harmony through the practice of "li" and "de". Western rationality and Confucian rationality both emphasize morality and autonomy; however, Western rationality focuses more on individual autonomy and universal principles, while Confucian rationality emphasizes roles and responsibilities within social relationships and the importance of emotions in moral life.
a)Kant sees freedom as the ability of the individual to regulate himself according to the universal moral law, beyond natural impulses and desires.
Confucius' rituals vs. Kant's duties
Confucius' etiquette, which requires individuals to follow social norms in order to maintain harmony, is similar to Kant's imperative obligation in that both emphasize self-discipline in individual behavior and respect for social order.
b) Kant regarded reason as the source of moral behavior and emphasized the individual's ability to self-legislate. Confucian influence on Chinese human nature.Confucianism's emphasis on benevolence and proprietyhas influenced Chinese society and culture by requiring individuals to behave in ways that reflect respect for others and maintain social order.
Western and Confucian rationality: - Similarities: Both emphasize the role of reason in moral behavior. Differences: Western rationality emphasizes individual free will, while Confucian rationality focuses more on social harmony and the role of the individual in society.
a) Kant sees freedom as acting according to the moral law given by rational beings themselves, with the categorical imperative as a key manifestation, guiding actions based on universalizable maxims.Confucius's idea of propriety and Kant's idea of imperative duty have both similarities and differences. Similarities lie in that both rely on internal recognition for moral conduct and possess a certain sense of universality within their respective contexts. However, they differ in that Kant's is based on pure reason as the source while Confucius's springs from historical, cultural and social traditions, and Kant focuses on abstract moral principles while Confucius centers more on specific social roles and interpersonal relationships within a particular social structure.
b）Kant defines human's "rational capacity" as what enables us to transcend instincts and formulate universal moral laws through practical reason. From his perspective, Confucianism shapes Chinese humanity by guiding people to use rationality to follow social and moral norms. Western rationality (Kant's) and Confucian rationality share similarities in providing moral guidance and requiring internalization, yet differ in that Kant's is based on abstract reasoning and universalizability across backgrounds while Confucian's is rooted in China's specific context and focuses more on social harmony through fulfilling roles in a hierarchical structure.
He believes that freedom is the opposite of necessity. Freedom is not doing what we want but doing something that is relatively rational by ourselves. Although Li sets our moral constraints, it ensures the entire society to be harmonious and promote its development positively.At the same time, it facilitates interpersonal relationships in a good way.
a) Kant believes that freedom is to conform to one's own condition, or even to serve oneself. In fact, I think this is similar to Confucius's saying, "Don't do to others what you don't want others to do to you." It means that if you don't want to do it, don't force others. But in fact, there is another meaning here, that is, don't force yourself to do what you don't want to do.
b)Kant believes that man's rational ability is to satisfy himself. From this point of view, I think Confucianism also tells us to accept ourselves and be consistent with ourselves
Kant defines freedom in a moral and philosophical context as the ability to act according to one's own rational will, rather than being driven by external forces or mere desires. For Kant, true freedom is the capacity to act in accordance with moral laws that one has rationally determined for oneself. This is encapsulated in his concept of the "categorical imperative," which is a principle that one must follow regardless of one's desires or inclinations. The categorical imperative requires that one acts only according to that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.
**Confucius’s Requisites on Propriety:**
Confucius emphasizes the importance of *li* (rituals or propriety) as a means of organizing and harmonizing social life. *Li* involves a set of prescribed behaviors and norms that guide individuals in their interactions with others, aiming to create a well-ordered society. However, Confucius also stresses the internalization of these norms, suggesting that true propriety comes from a genuine respect for others and a desire to cultivate one's moral character.
Both Confucius and Kant emphasize the role of rationality and self-discipline in ethical behavior. For Confucius, *li* is not merely a set of external rules but a way to align one's actions with a higher moral order, which is achieved through self-cultivation and a deep understanding of one's social roles. Similarly, Kant’s categorical imperative is a form of self-imposed moral law that requires individuals to act rationally and universally, transcending personal desires.
In both cases, freedom is not seen as the absence of constraints but as the ability to act in accordance with a higher moral standard. For Confucius, this standard is rooted in social harmony and personal virtue, while for Kant, it is grounded in universal moral principles derived from reason.
A discussion on Li with a comparative view of Kant's interpretation of "freedom" can be an enriching intellectual exercise. Here, I will first outline Kant's interpretation of freedom and then attempt a comparative discussion with the concept of "Li" (礼/理), drawing insights from traditional Chinese philosophy
In the Confucian tradition, "Li" is often associated with the cultivation of virtue and the pursuit of harmony in society. It emphasizes self-discipline, respect for others, and the maintenance of social order through proper conduct. Unlike Kant's emphasis on autonomy and the rational self-legislation of the will, the Confucian concept of "Li" places greater emphasis on social harmony and the role of ritual in shaping individual and collective behavior.
Comparative Discussion
Autonomy vs. Harmony: Kant's interpretation of freedom emphasizes individual autonomy and the rational self-legislation of the will. In contrast, the Confucian concept of "Li" focuses on social harmony and the role of ritual in maintaining proper relationships and order within society. While Kant sees freedom as the ability to act independently of external constraints, Confucianism sees "Li" as the means through which individuals can achieve harmony with others and the cosmos.
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motives: Kant argues that moral worth lies in the motives behind actions, specifically the duty motive. In contrast, Confucianism may see morality as more intrinsically tied to one's place within the social hierarchy and the proper fulfillment of one's role and responsibilities within that hierarchy. While Kant emphasizes the importance of acting out of a sense of obligation, Confucianism may see morality as flowing naturally from one's position and relationships within society
1.Kants definition of freedom can be understood from two levelstranscendental freedom and practical freedom.Transcendental freedom refers to a theoretical possibility,where human actions are not bound by external causal laws but are determined by internal rationality.Practical freedom,on the other hand,is in the moral sense,where individuals can act according to their free will,unencumbered by the laws of nature and physical instincts.Confucian rituals share similarities with Kants practical freedom,both emphasizing that individuals should guide their actions based on internal moral laws.
2.Kant divides human rational capacity into theoretical and practical reason.Theoretical reason involves cognitive functions,while practical reason involves volitional functions,which is the realm of freedom.Confucian rational capacity has similarities with Kants practical reason,both emphasizing that individuals should guide their actions based on reason.However,Confucianism focuses more on social and moral order,while Kant emphasizes individual moral autonomy and free will.
Kant;s interprtation of "freedom"is actually to release our self-consceiousness to dominate our thought and beahaiours rather than depends on other things such humain nature, social rules and etc. While Li is also emphases on seof-countal, obeying the rules thatwe set for ourselves. So, in some ways, they both have some similarities.
1. Kant believes that freedom refers to the autonomy of the will. That is, people are able to act in accordance with the moral laws they have established for themselves, rather than being influenced by external sensory desires and other factors. Confucius' concept of propriety (li) is a guidance for behavioral norms, which is based on considerations of social order and the harmony of human relations. There are similarities between the two. Compared with Confucius' concept of propriety, Kant's view of categorical imperatives emphasizes moral commands based on pure reason to a greater extent. Meanwhile, Confucius' concept of propriety focuses more on the appropriateness of behavior in specific social situations and human relations. Both have normative requirements and hope that individuals can act under the guidance of moral or behavioral norms. It's just that Confucius' concept of propriety is more situational and humanistic, while Kant's view of categorical imperatives is more abstract and rationalistic.
2. Kant holds that through reason, people can establish moral laws and think and judge the justness of actions, rather than relying solely on instinct or external authority. The influence of Confucian thought on the Chinese people has made them attach great importance to ethical and moral order. From the perspective of Kantian reason, this influence of Confucianism has a positive side. It has cultivated people's rational thinking in social interactions. Through learning the concept of propriety and Confucian moral concepts, people can act in a way that is more in line with the overall interests of society.
Similarities: Both attach importance to the normativity of moral behavior.
Differences: Western reason, especially Kantian reason, emphasizes apriority and the self-legislation of pure reason to a greater extent, and moral laws are highly abstract and universal. Confucian reason, on the other hand, starts more from human relations and social order, and its rational thinking is often in specific interpersonal relationships and social scenarios, with strong situational characteristics.
Kant's interpretation of freedom emphasizes autonomy of human being. He advocates the opposite of your necessity and obeys the choice of yourself, rather than the natural necessity. People can do what they want without controlled by natural conditions.
Kant divided freedom into three levels: a priori freedom, practical freedom and moral freedom.A priori freedom is the freedom of reason, which is free from external limitations and constraints, but needs to be guided by reason and is not arbitrary.Practical freedom is the freedom of the will, realized through the guidance of reason, and is the positive freedom that provides the basis and guarantee for moral freedom.Moral freedom is the freedom of self-discipline, which is free from external limitations and constraints in the moral sphere.
Understanding the requirements of Confucius' "Rites" with Kantian interpretation of freedom
Confucius' "rites" are not contrary to the spirit of human freedom."Ritual is an external behavioral norm and guideline, similar to what Kant called the embodiment of practical reason.When people follow the requirements of "rites" and act in an appropriate manner in social interactions, they are precisely using reason to restrain and guide their own behavior so as to achieve a state of harmony and order.Such constraints do not limit freedom, but allow people to better realize freedom on the basis of following moral and ethical norms.For example, "Don't look, don't listen, don't speak, don't move" requires people to use reason to restrain instinctive desires and behaviors that are not in line with "propriety" in order to achieve a higher level of spiritual freedom and social harmony.
Comparison between Confucius' "propriety" and Kant's "obligatory duty".
- Normativity: Confucius' "rites" stipulate the norms and guidelines for social and personal behavior, according to which people need to act; Kant's "obligatory duties" is also a kind of moral command, which requires people to fulfill the corresponding obligations.Both are normative and binding.
- Morality: "Ritual" embodies the moral concept of Confucius and is an important way to realize "benevolence"; "obligatory duty" is also based on Kant's moral philosophy, emphasizing the moral law.The "obligatory duty" is also based on Kant's moral philosophy, emphasizing the universality and absoluteness of moral law, both of which contain moral values and meanings.
- Social: The purpose of "propriety" is to maintain social order and promote harmony in interpersonal relations; "obligatory duty" also involves the responsibility of the individual to others and the society, and both are concerned with the stability and development of the society.
Kant's Definition of Human "Rational Ability
According to Kant, "pure reason" refers to a pure, non-experiential, theoretical way of thinking, which tries to grasp the essence and basic principles of things through logic and reasoning without relying on sensible experience."Reason" is the ability of human beings to think about and understand the world, and in the broadest sense, it refers to the human heart's "ability to judge on the basis of innate principles", including cognitive ability, emotional ability, and the ability to desire, which are the sources of innate principles.
The Influence of Confucius on Chinese Human Nature from the Perspective of Kantian Rationality
Confucius emphasized the ideas of "propriety" and "benevolence", which shaped the Chinese people's human nature of paying attention to moral cultivation, following social norms, and pursuing harmonious interpersonal relationships.From the perspective of Kant's rationality, Confucius' ideas have cultivated the Chinese people's ability to use reason to restrain their instinctive desires, follow moral laws, and fulfill their social responsibilities, which has made the Chinese people pay more attention to the collective interests and social order in their social life, and embodied the spirit of rationality based on morality and ethics.
Similarities and Differences between Western Reason and Confucian Reason
- Similarities: Both emphasize the important role of rationality in human cognition and behavior, and believe that through rationality one can know the world, regulate behavior, and pursue moral values.
- Differences: Western rationality pays more attention to logical reasoning and scientific method, and pursues certainty and universality of knowledge; Confucian rationality pays more attention to moral practice and social ethics, and emphasizes the realization of social harmony and stability through personal cultivation and behavior.Western rationality has formed a more systematic philosophical and scientific system in the process of development, while Confucian rationality is mainly embodied in moral, ethical and socio-political thoughts.
Kant sees freedom as the rational being's autonomous act in line with self-imposed moral laws. Confucius' propriety (Li) isn't a restraint but a guide. It offers a framework for harmonious social and ethical interactions. Similar to Kant's categorical imperative, Confucius' propriety has a universal element. Principles like loyalty and forgiveness are ethical maxims for all, just as Kant's moral law is universal and reason-based.Kant defines rational capacity as the ability to self-determine principles via reason for moral judgment and autonomy. Confucianism, like Kantian thought, uses reason for moral pursuits. Through studying classics, individuals understand norms. Western and Confucian rationality both seek moral principles and value reason in behavior. But Western, like Kant's, focuses on individual autonomy and abstract laws via pure reason. Confucian rationality is context and relation-centered, emphasizing family and social roles and harmonious ties, such as filial piety.
Confucius isn't inhumane. His propriety aims for social harmony and moral growth, aligning with human well-being and values.
In response to the initial question about Confucius being inhumane as suggested by Bertrand Russell, this view is inaccurate. Confucius's emphasis on propriety is not inhumane. Instead, it is a way to achieve social harmony and moral cultivation through the guidance of reasonable norms, which is actually in line with the pursuit of human well - being and moral values.
1. Kant believes that freedom is not only the negative freedom from external constraints, but also the positive freedom of self-discipline in accordance with moral laws. It's a choice of your own volition. The "ritual" advocated by Confucius is also a manifestation of self-discipline. "Ritual" is not only a set of external norms of behavior, but also the embodiment of internal moral cultivation.
2. Kant believes that reason is the cognitive ability of human beings, which includes knowledge elements From the perspective of Kant's definition of rational ability, Confucian influence on Chinese human nature can be viewed from the following aspects:
Moral and ethical thinking: Confucianism emphasizes the importance of morality and ethics, which dovetailing with Kant's view that reason can lead people to pursue universal moral principles and follow universal moral laws in their actions.
For Kant, freedom is to act to the law that I give myself.For Kant, freedom is the opposite of natural necessity. It means acting autonomously, according to a law one gives oneself, not according to the physical laws of nature or the laws of cause and effect.
Confucius, on the other hand, emphasized benevolence as the foundation of social harmony and personal virtue. Bene, for Confucius, is not just a set of external rules but an internal disposition that reflects one's respect for others and one's place in society. In a way, Confucius's idea of propriety can be seen as an expression of one's freedom to act in a way that is in harmony with the larger social order.
In this sense, Confucius’s idea of propriety is comparable with Kant’s idea of imperative duty, as both emphasize the importance of acting in accordance with one's own moral principles and the larger social order. However, Confucius's focus is more on the cultivation of personal virtue and harmony within society, while Kant's focus is more on the autonomy of the individual and the rational basis of morality.
a) Freedom: Kant believed that freedom is the basis of moral behavior, emphasizing free choice under the guidance of reason; Confucius emphasized as a social norm and pursued harmony and order. Both emphasize the observance of moral laws or norms, but Kant focuses more on universality, and Confucius focuses on interpersonal harmony.
b) Rational capacity: Kant believed that reason is the highest stage of cognition, the basis of moral action; Confucianism emphasizes the inherent goodness of human nature and the realization of values and social responsibilities through moral cultivation and self-improvement. Both value rationality, but Western rationality emphasizes individual autonomy and independent thinking, while Confucian rationality is more concerned with interpersonal relationships and social responsibility.
Confucius sees "Li" as a manifestation of inner virtue and self-discipline that leads to inner freedom and fulfillment. Kant, on the other hand, views freedom as the essence of human existence and sees self-discipline as stemming from obeying self-imposed moral principles. Both of them suggest that true freedom is found in aligning one's actions with a higher moral purpose.
a) Freedom, according to Kant, is acting according to moral laws out of one's own reason, not merely following impulses or external pressures. This aligns with Confucius's emphasis on propriety (Li), which guides behavior through social norms and moral principles to achieve inner harmony and social order. Both Confucius's propriety and Kant's categorical imperative emphasize internal moral obligations.
b) Kant defines human rational capacity as the ability to think, judge, and act independently based on reason. From this perspective, Confucianism's focus on education and self-cultivation aims to develop this rational capacity. Western rationality emphasizes logical reasoning and scientific inquiry, while Confucian rationality focuses more on ethical conduct and social harmony.
According to Kant, freedom is closely related to moral law. Freedom is the presupposition of moral action. In the noumenal realm, freedom allows individuals to act according to pure practical reason, independent of the determination of natural laws. It is the ability to initiate actions based on self - given moral laws.
Confucius emphasized that Li was crucial for an individual and society. Li in Confucian thought includes proper behavior in various social relationships, such as respect for elders, loyalty to rulers, and harmonious interaction with peers. It is a set of norms and standards that regulate people's daily actions, speech, and attitudes.
For Kant, freedom enables one to act morally autonomously. In Confucianism, when people follow the requirements of etiquette, they are also exercising a kind of self - regulation. For example, in showing respect for elders as required by Confucian etiquette, individuals are not forced externally but are following an internalized moral sense, similar to Kant's idea that in freedom, one follows self - given moral laws.
We can’t say Confucius is in line with inhumanity.
The core concept of Kant's moral philosophy is freedom. In Kant's view, people not only belong to the "feeling" or "phenomenal" world, but also belong to the "conceptual" or "ontology" world. As part of the world of empirical phenomena, man is determined and unfree, and his will and behavior are subject to the causal law of the natural world. As part of the rational ontology world, man is a free and moral driving force. He is free and self-determined to choose between good and evil. Kant believes that the general principles of law and morality cannot be based on empirical human nature, but must be incorporated into the "conceptual" or "ontological" world, and built on a priori "should" world based on rational commands.
People start from sensory experience and form knowledge through the synthesis of perceptual categories, however, human beings are not satisfied with this, they also want to make knowledge into a system to achieve the self-same thing, and this cognitive ability is reason.The innate form of reason is the idea and its function is reasoning.Kant pushes straight reasoning, false reasoning, and declarative reasoning to their extremes are the three ideas of reason: the soul, the world, and God.The role of reason is to adjust knowledge and further refine it into unity.But this unity is only "ideal unity" rather than "real unity", and the traditional conception is to mistake the former for the latter, thus falling into the "a priori illusion".
Confucius believed that by following the "Li", people could live in harmony in society and maintain social stability and order . Kant emphasized that true freedom lies in following internal moral laws, namely, individual self-discipline. However, Kant's morality, only talking about the starting point, not the interest, the requirements are very high, difficult to achieve. Confucius's morality of the mean is relatively easy to achieve. First of all, Confucius paid attention to Li while taking into account sensibility, in line with human sensibility needs.
1.Kant's interpretation of freedom : to act autonomously ; that is, not being driven by external coercion or blind desires within, but rather acting according to a law one gives omeself.
2.Confucius's propriety also contains an element of autonomy, where individuals actively practice propriety to enhance their moral character . Although this autonomy differs in form from Kant's autonomous action,but both share a spirit of valuing individual moral responsibility.
Moreover, Kant's idea resonates with Confucius's principle of "Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself," both emphasize considering the feelings and rights of others in action, reflecting respect for moral norms and the assumption of individual responsibility.
a) What indeed is freedom? Using Kant's interpretation of freedom to comprehend Confucius's requisites on propriety:
Freedom, according to Kant, is the autonomy of the will to act in accordance with the moral law, which he sees as universal and unchangeable principles of right action. This autonomy implies that individuals are not swayed by external forces or internal passions but act out of a sense of duty and respect for the moral law.
Confucius emphasizes propriety (li) as a way to organize and structure social and personal behaviors. While it may seem to some that this conflicts with human emotional instinct and free spirit, Confucius's focus on propriety is actually aimed at fostering harmony and balance in society. In this sense, Confucius's idea of propriety can be seen as a guide for action that helps individuals fulfill their roles and responsibilities within society in a way that respects the inherent dignity and worth of all individuals.
In comparing Confucius's idea of propriety with Kant's idea of imperative duty, we can see a similarity in their emphasis on acting in accordance with a higher principle. For Confucius, this principle is rooted in the traditional values and norms of Chinese society, while for Kant, it is the moral law that transcends all particular circumstances and desires. Both see the fulfillment of these principles as essential for a well-ordered and harmonious society.
b) How does the German philosopher Kant define human's “rational capacity”? From this perspective, how should we look at Confucian's influence on Chinese humanity? How is western rationality similar and different from Confucian rationality?
Kant defines human's "rational capacity" as the ability to reason and to act in accordance with the moral law. This rational capacity sets humans apart from other animals and is the foundation for human dignity and worth. Kant believes that through the exercise of our rational capacity, we can transcend our sensuous desires and achieve true freedom.
From this perspective, Confucianism's influence on Chinese humanity can be seen as emphasizing the cultivation of rationality and morality through education and social norms. Confucianism teaches that through self-cultivation and the fulfillment of one's roles and responsibilities within society, individuals can achieve a higher level of moral and intellectual development.
While western rationality and Confucian rationality share some similarities, such as an emphasis on reason and morality, they also have significant differences. Western rationality tends to emphasize individual autonomy and the pursuit of personal goals through reason and science. In contrast, Confucian rationality emphasizes the harmonious integration of the individual within society and the fulfillment of one's roles and responsibilities as a member of that society.
Furthermore, western rationality tends to see reason as separate from and sometimes in opposition to emotion, while Confucian rationality integrates reason and emotion, seeing them as complementary aspects of human nature.
In conclusion, while there may be some tensions between Confucianism's emphasis on propriety and individual freedom, as understood in Kantian terms, it is important to recognize that both traditions share a commitment to morality and the pursuit of a good life. By understanding the unique contributions of both traditions, we can appreciate the complexity and diversity of human thought and culture. And as for whether Confucius is in line with inhumanity, as suggested by Bertrand Russell, it is a question that requires a nuanced understanding of both Confucianism and western philosophical traditions.
1. Freedom is acting according to the laws I have set for myself, not being controlled by my passions and desires. Confucius' thought on rites, as Kant put it, is "autonomously," meaning self-disciplined. Freedom is not doing whatever one wants.
2.Kant defines human's rational capacity as the ability to think independently and formulate moral principles using reason.Confucianism has deeply influenced Chinese humanity with values like benevolence, righteousness. From Kant's perspective, Confucian teachings also prompt rational thinking for moral behavior. Regarding rationality, both Western and Confucian recognize using reason for moral judgments. However, Kant's moral principles are from pure reason, universal.
Kant's interpretation of "freedom" is mainly focused on his moral philosophy, emphasizing that freedom is a kind of self-discipline, namely, the autonomy of the will.Kant believes that freedom is not to do anything as you want, but to "do what you don't want to do without doing it."This freedom is achieved through moral law, which transcends individual differences and becomes a universal law. Kant distinguishes between two worlds: the sensory world and the intellectual world. In the sensory world, our choices are governed by external factors (such as desire, pain, etc.), while in the intellectual world, we are aware of the autonomy of the will.
(a)In Confucian philosophy, "Li" (理) is the embodiment of the order of the universe and society. It requires individuals to achieve moral cultivation while following these orders. Individual freedom is not unrestricted but is realized within the framework of "Li."• Kant, however, divides freedom into three levels: transcendental freedom, practical freedom, and moral freedom. Transcendental freedom refers to the freedom of reason, which is not limited by external factors; practical freedom refers to the freedom of the will, which can be achieved through the guidance of reason; moral freedom is the autonomy of freedom, which is not restricted or bound by external factors in the moral realm.
(b)German philosopher Immanuel Kant's definition of human"rational capacity"can be understood from his critical philosophy.Kant believed that reason is a process of self-reflection,involving the self-examination of reason to determine its capabilities and limitations.In his moral philosophy,the highest principle of reason is the categorical imperative of practical reason,an unconditional principle that must always guide our actions.Kant's first formulation is:"Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law."This indicates that rational capacity is universal,unaffected by an individual's specific experiences and environment,and is a capability shared by all rational beings.
From this perspective,the influence of Confucianism on Chinese humanity is reflected in its ethical and philosophical system,which emphasizes achieving harmony between the individual and society through moral virtues.The Five Constants of Confucianism(benevolence,righteousness,propriety,wisdom,and faithfulness)are at its core,highlighting the responsibilities and roles of individuals within society.The concept of the"gentleman"in Confucian thought has become a standard for many Chinese people,especially intellectuals.
The similarities between Western rationality and Confucian rationality lie in their pursuit of truth and understanding the best way of life.However,the differences lie in the fact that Western philosophy is considered more"one-sided,"while Eastern philosophy(especially Confucian philosophy)is considered more"holistic."Confucian philosophy involves both the inner and outer life of a person,while Western philosophy focuses more on certain aspects of a person.Kant's concept of reason emphasizes universality and autonomy,while Confucian rationality focuses more on social harmony and moral virtues,as well as achieving social harmony through these virtues.
Kant defines true freedom not as the absence of constraints but as the ability to act according to rational principles. These principles are derived from the categorical imperative, a universal moral law that must be followed regardless of personal desires or external influences. Confucius emphasizes the importance of li, which refers to propriety, ritual, or etiquette. Liincludes a set of social norms and behaviors that promote harmony and order in society. For Confucius, following liis essential for maintaining social stability and fostering virtuous character. It involves respecting hierarchy, fulfilling one's roles and responsibilities, and acting in ways that benefit the community
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